Published online 20 May 2008
Published in Crop Sci 48:841-853 (2008)
© 2008 Crop Science Society of America
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
Fenugreek, an Alternative Crop for Semiarid Regions of North America
S. N. Acharyaa,*,
J. E. Thomasb and
S. K. Basua,b
a Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research Centre, P.O. Box 3000, Lethbridge, AB, T1J 4B1, Canada
b Dep. of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4 Canada
* Corresponding author (acharya{at}agr.gc.ca).
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ABSTRACT
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Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is extensively used as a spice in India and the Mediterranean region and is known to possess a number of medicinal properties. Steroidal sapogenins and mucilaginous fibers present in the seed and leaves of this legume plant contribute to anti-diabetic and hypocholesterolaemic properties attributed to the plant. In recent years selected genotypes of this species have formed a niche crop that produces high yields of bloat-free forage that can increase both beef and milk production in semiarid regions of western Canada. Fenugreek genotypes tested in western Canada have demonstrated genetic variability for biomass production and nutraceutical properties indicating that there is much potential for enhancing the properties desired by agricultural and nutraceutical industries in this region. This paper reviews the history, culture and documented medicinal, agronomic and environmental value of fenugreek as well as discusses future potential of this crop for use in semiarid regions of North America.
Abbreviations: IVDMD, in vitro dry matter disappearance • LD, lethal dose
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HISTORY, ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF FENUGREEK SPECIES
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FENUGREEK (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an annual crop belonging to the legume family. Although grown as a spice in most parts of the world, the species name "foenum-graecum" means "Greek hay" indicating its use as a forage crop in the past (Acharya et al., 2006; Petropoulos, 2002). Saraswat (1984) recovered carbonized fenugreek seed from a Rohira village in the Sangrur district of Punjab, India indicating its use in trade by people of the Harappan civilization as far back as 2000–1700 B.C. Fenugreek is also known as one of the oldest medicinal plants recognized in recorded history (Lust, 1986).
Authors have widely divergent opinions about the probable ancestry of T. foenum-graecum. Vavilov (1926, 1951) suggested that fenugreek is native to the Mediterranean region of the "Old World", while De Candolle (1964) and, Fazli and Hardman (1968) proposed an Asian origin for the crop. Dangi et al. (2004) also have suggested that T. caerulea and T. foenum-graecum originated in Turkey. Such disagreements over the origins of fenugreek led Sinskaya (1961) to suggest that location of the direct wild ancestor of T. foenum-graecum is debatable.
Indigenous species have been reported on the continents of Asia (6 species), Europe (5 species), Africa (1 species), and Australia (1 species) (Petropoulos 2002) Fenugreek also is reported as a cultivated crop in parts of Europe, northern Africa, west and south Asia, North and South America and Australia (Acharya et al., 2006; Jongebloed, 2004; AAFRD, 1998; Plant Genetic Resource Center, 1996; Edison, 1995; Smith, 1982; Rosengarten, 1969; Fazli and Hardman, 1968; Rouk and Mangesha, 1963) (Fig. 1
).
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Figure 1. Map showing high and low fenugreek producing areas of the world and probable centers of origin. Map not to scale.
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The exact number of species of fenugreek also has been debated. Petropoulos (2002) indicated that earlier taxonomists like Linnaeus suggested existence of as many as 260 species of fenugreek. In contrast, about 128 species of fenugreek were reported by Vasil'chenko (1953), 97 by Fazli (1967) and, 70 by Hector (1936), Hutchinson (1964), and Rouk and Mangesha (1963). A total of 18 different species of fenugreek (Trigonella) are currently recognized in the primary literature. Some of the common species are: T. anguina, T. arabica, T. caerulea,T. corniculata, T. cariensis, T. rigida,, T. suavissima, T. torulosa,T. spinosa, T. polycerata, T. radiata, T. platycarpos, T. hamosa,T. cretica, T. occulta, T. arcuata, and T. striata (Petropoulos, 2002; Fazli and Hardman, 1968; Tutin and Heywood, 1964).
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BOTANICAL PERSPECTIVE OF FENUGREEK
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Fenugreek is an annual dicotyledonous plant belonging to the subfamily Papilionaceae, family Leguminacae (the Fabacecae) with trifoliate leaves, branched stems, white flowers, roots bearing nodules and golden yellow seeds (Fig. 2
). In general, two types of flowering shoots are observed. The common ones bear axillary flowers showing an indeterminate growth habit, whereas so called "blind shoots" have both axillary and terminal flowers, becoming "tip bearers" for seedpods. Both cleistogamous (closed) and aneictogamous (open) flowers have been described (Petropoulos, 1973) but the vast majority of fenugreek flowers are closed or cleistogamous.
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Figure 2. (A) Fenugreek plant with branched stems and axillary pods; (B) Rare terminal flowers (white) and trifoliate leaves; (C) Cattle grazing fenugreek; (D) Healthy root nodules; (E) Golden yellow fenugreek seed; (F) Fenugreek field in western Canada.
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The high frequency of closed flowers with protective papilionaceous corollae explains why fenugreek behaves predominantly as a self-pollinated plant. Allard (1960) and Darlington and Wylie (1945) have classified Trigonella species as self- and cross pollinated based on observations of open and closed flowers. Del'Gaudio (1952, 1953) on the other hand, has suggested that even plants with open flowers are self-fertile based on detailed investigations of floral physiology. However, cross pollination may occur in open flowers of fenugreek. Allard (1960) has suggested that legumes are considered cross-pollinated when more than 10% of them are "out-crossed". On this basis fenugreek is considered as a rarely cross pollinated plant, as its stigma becomes receptive before the anthers mature. Because of this, hybridization between selected genotypes for breeding purposes has to be done in closed flowers of fenugreek at initiation of the second stage of floral development. At this stage the stamens are lower in position than the stigma of the flower and the anthers are closed even though the stigma is receptive to pollination.
Fenugreek genotypes grown in western Canada and those showing adaptation to this area do not show any external morphological (phenotypic) variation in flower structure or color relative to "old world" varieties. However, considerable variation with respect to seed and forage yield has been observed when the same genotypes were grown in different years and under different environmental conditions such as dryland and irrigation (Basu et al., 2004). Considerable variation also has been observed in Canada among fenugreek accessions collected from different parts of the world both in seed yield parameters (Acharya et al., 2006; Basu et al., 2004) as well as chemical constituents such as diosgenin content (Taylor et al., 2002).
Cytogenetic Studies and Variability in Fenugreek Lines
According to Darlington and Wylie (1945) the haploid chromosome number (n) of Trigonella can be 8, 9, 11 or 14. Most species including Trigonella foenum-graecum L. are diploids with 2n = 16 chromosomes. However, T. hamosa from Egypt was found to have 16 and 44 chromosomes; T. geminiflora (from Persia in Asia Minor) and T. grandiflora (from Turkestan) both have 44 chromosomes; T. polycerata (from the Mediterranean region of south west Asia) has 28, 30, and 32 chromosomes and, T. ornithopodioides is reported to have 18 chromosomes. These data suggest that some Trigonella species have undergone several rounds of chromosome doubling and rediploidization through gene and chromosome elimination (Petropoulos, 2002).
Singh and Singh (1976) isolated five double trisomics from Trigonella along with primary trisomics from the progeny of autotetraploids which had a chromosomal constitution of 2n+1+1 = 18. Roy and Singh (1968) also produced tetraploid fenugreek by treating shoot apices with colchicine. Joshi and Raghuvanshi (1968) have demonstrated that chromosome number in fenugreek can increase through the presence of B-chromosomes and Ahmad et al. (1999) observed B-chromosomes in many fenugreek accessions.
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BREEDING OF FENUGREEK
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Artificial crossing of fenugreek is difficult because it is largely self-pollinated (Fehr, 1993; Busbice et al., 1972). Consequently selection among world accessions and mutation breeding have been advocated as the best ways to improve the crop (Petropoulos, 2002; Fehr, 1993; Raghuvanshi and Singh, 1981; Sinskaya, 1961), and much of the breeding with fenugreek has utilized these two approaches (Green et al., 1981). Our attempt at mutation breeding in fenugreek using ethyl mathane sulfonate (EMS) on the only forage cultivar released in North America "Tristar" produced determinate and early maturing types (Basu et al., 2008). This mutation breeding study has detected new breeding material exhibiting high seed yield and seed quality and is the first report on successful use of mutation breeding for improvement in quantitative traits in this crop. Although limited, hybridization as a breeding tool also has been successfully used to improve fenugreek as a marketable crop (Saleh, 1996; Edison, 1995; Cornish et al., 1983).
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MEDICINAL AND NUTRACEUTICAL PROPERTIES OF FENUGREEK
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Fenugreek has been referred to as a medicinal herb both in Indian Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicines (Tiran, 2003). Ancient literature, religious scripture, travel records and anecdotes from different continents and from different periods of human history, record a wide variety of medicinal properties associated with fenugreek (Lust, 1986). Diverse medicinal uses in early times include wound-healing, bust enhancement, promotion of lactation in weaning mothers, and use as an aphrodisiac (Tiran, 2003).
In recent years the terms "nutraceutical" and "functional food" are often used for attracting consumers to use food with additional health properties. The two terms are used interchangeably, although there is a distinct difference between the two. The term "nutraceuticals" was first coined in 1988 by Stephen DeFelice, the Founder and Chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine in the USA. Nutraceuticals are "products isolated and purified from foods that are generally sold in medicinal forms and are usually associated with food." Health Canada (1998) defined nutraceuticals as products with demonstrated physiological benefits or that can provide protection against chronic diseases. The same organization defined functional foods as "similar in appearance to, or may be, conventional foods, that are consumed as part of a usual diet, and have demonstrated physiological benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic diseases beyond the basic nutritional functions". One other word used in this connection is "phytochemicals"; these are: A nonnutritive bioactive plant substance, such as a flavonoid or carotenoid, considered to have beneficial effects on human health (American Heritage, 2004).
Although Fugh-Berman (2003) has suggested that there is little clinical evidence for medical claims attributed to fenugreek, its leaves and seed have been used extensively to prepare extracts and powders for medicinal use (Basch et al., 2003). A number of important chemicals with medicinal value have been found in fenugreek seed and leaves (Petropoulos, 2002). Some of these chemical constituents and references for the research work related to them are presented in Table 1
.
In general, fenugreek contains three important chemical constituents with medicinal value; i.e. 1) steroidal sapogenins; 2) galactomannans and 3) isoleucine. These constituents seem to work in a synergistic way to produce health effects and have placed fenugreek among the most commonly recognized "nutraceutical" or health food products. Some medicinal properties attributed to fenugreek and relevant references are presented in Table 2
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Steroidal Sapogenins
Fenugreek seed is an important source of steroidal sapogenins such as diosgenin which are used extensively by both pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries. Diosgenin is often used as a raw precursor for the production of steroidal drugs and hormones such as testosterone, glucocorticoids and progesterone (Raghuram et al., 1994; Fazli and Hardman, 1968). McAnuff et al. (2002) reported that steroidal sapogenins are effective agents for the treatment of hypocholesterolemia, a disorder often associated with diabetes.
Natural diosgenin is mainly procured from the tubers of certain wild species of Mexican yam (Dioscorea species). However this process is both time consuming and costly, requiring several years before the yam tubers grow to a size where they possess a significant enough concentration of diosgenin to be used as a source of commercial and pharmaceutical reagents (Rosser, 1985). Fenugreek may be a viable alternative for production of diosgenin because of its shorter growing cycle, lower production costs and consistent yield and quality (Petropoulos, 1973; Hardman, 1969).
Galactomanans
Galactomanans are major polysaccharide species found in fenugreek seeds and, represent 
50% of the seed weight (Raghuram et al., 1994). They are an integral component of the cell walls in the seed endosperm (Meier and Reid, 1977). Their structure is composed of a 1
4 linked β-D-mannosyl backbone with single unit galactose side-chains, 
-linked at the O-6 oxygen. Fenugreek galactomanan is considered unique due to a 1:1 to 1.2:1 ratio of galactose to mannose (G:M) molecules (Andrews et al., 1952). This high ratio of galactose substitution helps galactomanans to adsorb water allowing them to form highly viscous solutions at relatively low concentrations resulting in reduced glucose absorption within the digestive tract (Raghuram et al., 1994). This property of fenugreek gum (galactomanan) is under exploited in the global food industry (Ramesh et al., 2001) and offers unique opportunities for use in control of caloric intake by targeted groups of consumers. For example, fenugreek galactomannans appear to aid in the control of type 2 diabetes in both animals (Vats et al., 2002, 2003; Puri et al., 2002; Raju et al., 2001; Tayyaba et al., 2001; Ribes et al., 1986) and humans (Puri et al., 2002; Sharma et al., 1996; Raghuram et al., 1994; Madar et al., 1988; Sharma, 1986; Sharma and Raghuram, 1990) by helping to reduce hyperglycemia.
Isoleucine
The amino acid isoleucine is a precursor of 4-hydroxyisoleucine which is known to regulate the secretion of insulin in animals (Broca et al., 2000; Sauvaire et al., 1998). Most hypoglycaemic and anti-hyperglycaemic effects of fenugreek are attributed to the gastrointestinal effect of dietary fiber and systemic effects of amino acids like 4-hydroxyisoleucine present in the seed (Sauvaire et al., 1996; Moorthy et al., 1989; Ribes et al., 1986; Madar, 1984).
In addition to these medicinal effects the nutritional value and physiological properties of fenugreek seed and leaves have been extensively studied by Billaud and Adrian (2001). In India, fenugreek is extensively used as a galactagogue for milk let down in humans and cattle (Edison, 1995). The suitability of the development of food products based on millets, legumes and fenugreek seed for use in diabetic diets has been suggested by Pathak et al. (2000). Head lice, Pediculus humanus capitis in humans also can be successfully treated with plant extracts containing fenugreek mixed with extracts from other plants such as Hibiscus cannabinus, Lawsonia alba and Artemisia cina (El-Bashier and Fouad, 2002). Although no mention was made about the individual effect of fenugreek extract, the synergistic effect of the multiple plant extracts was extremely successful and removed head lice from infected patients within a week. Singh et al. (2004) reported that incorporation of fenugreek seed into the diet also could reduce UV A and B mediated radiation damage to skin cells and can also help in reducing sickness due to air pollution.
Functional Food Aspects of Fenugreek
Legume consumption is known to have a beneficial or protective effect in diabetes, hypercholesterolaemia and coronary heart disease, as well as potential to protect against obesity and menstrual disorders (Madar and Stark, 2002; Mazur et al., 1998). Mansour and El-Adawy (1994) recommended that fenugreek seed be added to foods like ground meat and baked goods, not only as a nutritional supplement but also as a potential functional food. According to the USDA (2001) fenugreek seed contains 20% protein, 50% carbohydrate, 5% fat and 25% dietary fibers. Lipids, cellulose starch, ash, calcium, iron, β-carotene (Sauvaire et al., 1976); and ascorbic acid (Riddoch et al., 1998) have also been reported to be present in the seed. Fenugreek seed endosperm is characterized by soluble fibers and approximately half the dry weight of fenugreek seed has soluble dietary fibers (SDF), and edible dietary fiber (Aspinall, 1980). Boiling of fenugreek seed results in loss of crude proteins, total sugars and ash, but subsequently increases the level of crude fibers without a significant effect on lipid levels (Ismail, 1996). The seed constituents of fenugreek have important uses as functional foods. Seed galactomanan is industrially used as a food emulsifier (Gatri et al., 1997); mucilage is used as an ice cream stabilizer (Balyan et al., 2001) and also as a viscosity builder (Seghal et al., 2002). In a study where the composition of raw, soaked and germinated fenugreek seed was compared, Hooda and Jood (2003a) found that the nutritional quality of fenugreek seed could be improved through careful processing and subsequent reduction in bitterness. Improvement in oxidative stability of raw food products such as eggs could be achieved by adding fenugreek in a seed mix (Armitage et al., 2002). Fenugreek leaf has been reported to have significant nutritional quality (Gupta et al., 1998). Cooking of fenugreek leaves in a pressure-cooker can improve retention of essential chemical nutrients such as ascorbic acid and β-carotene (Yadav and Sehgal, 1997).
Value Added Products
Fenugreek fibers, psyllium husk and wheat bran could be used as dietary supplements to increase roughage in the human diet (Al-Khalidi et al., 1999). Use of corn bread mixed with a small amount of fenugreek (3%) or with wheat flour (30%) is used as staple food in Egypt (Galal, 2001). Good quality wheat breads with high nutritional characteristics and higher acceptability have been produced in Egypt by supplementing wheat flour with 4% fenugreek flour (Bakr, 1997). Bhatia and Khetrapaul (2002) recorded a significant (P < 0.05) reduction in phytic acid levels and a simultaneous in vitro increase in calcium and iron content in fenugreek supplemented Indian bread with higher temperature and longer duration of the fermentation process. In another study, Sharma and Chauhan (2000) reported that supplementing wheat flour with ground debittered fenugreek improves the physicochemical, nutritional and rheological properties of wheat dough. In another study, Hooda and Jood (2003b) found that the physiological, rheological and organoleptic characteristics of wheat-fenugreek blends had an increased protein and fat content. In India, fenugreek flour blended rice bran was found to improve the physical and sensory properties of breads and cookies while improving their quality (Sharma and Chauhan, 2002).
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ECOLOGICAL, AGRONOMIC AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE CROP
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Fenugreek is a specialty crop in western Canada that can benefit producers in many ways (Acharya et al., 2004). As a legume crop, it can condition the soil by fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere and can reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizers for subsequent crops. As a dryland crop, its water requirements are low; use of fenugreek can reduce the cost of irrigation, save water and reduce eutrophication of surface waters and limit contamination of ground water sources (Basu et al., 2004).
Agronomic research conducted in different agro-climatic zones in India suggests that optimum productivity can be obtained when fenugreek rows are spaced 20 to 30 cm apart and planted in early October or November (Korla and Saini, 2003; Gill et al., 2001; Baswana and Pandita, 1989; Bhatt, 1988). Our observations indicate that in western Canada, this crop performs well when seeded between late April to mid May and the spacing required is similar to that observed in other parts of the world. Interest in cultivating fenugreek in temperate climates, such as that found in western Canada, has increased because of its dryland adaptation (Acharya et al., 2004). It should be noted that drought stressed fenugreek was reported to have a lower diosgenin yield in Slovania than fenugreek grown without water stress (Bari
evi and Zupani, 2002).
Agronomic practices known to maximize fenugreek yield involve time of forage cutting (Lal et al., 2003), and use of minimal levels of irrigation (Moyer et al., 2003; Kumar et al., 2000; Ram and Verma, 2000; Sheoran et al., 2000; Bhatt, 1993; Mir et al., 1993). Well-drained loam soils (Rosengarten, 1969) with a pH of 8–8.5 are favored by the crop. Potash has been successfully used to adjust soil pH to increase nutrient uptake by fenugreek (Yadav and Kumawat, 2003). Heavy and wet soils limited fenugreek growth in other parts of the world (Petropoulos, 1973) as well as in relatively wet areas of western Canada and the USA (personal communication).
Because fenugreek is a nitrogen-fixing legume, seeds must be inoculated with appropriate Rhizobium species for optimal growth. The most common nodule- forming bacteria associated with Trigonella foenum-graecum L. is the Gram negative, aerobic, non-sporulating bacillus Rhizobium meliloti (Subba Rao and Sharma, 1968). Abdelgani et al. (1999) suggested that inoculation of fenugreek with a suitable strain of Rhizobium can improve seed yield and quality. In addition, Abd-Ala and Omar (1998) reported that application of wheat straw and fungi (Sinorhizobium meliloti, Trichoderma harzianum, Aspergillus niger and Chaetonium globosum) can promote nodulation, nodule efficiency and fenugreek growth under saline soil conditions. In western Canada trials, use of legume soil inoculants (code ‘N’ of The Nitragin Company, USA) at the recommended rate was found to be adequate for nodulation and plant growth.
Use of organic and inorganic fertilizers (N and P) as well as farmyard manure has been effective in increasing fenugreek yield (Khiriya and Singh, 2003; Yadav and Kumawat, 2003; Detoroja et al., 1995). Fenugreek grows well in sewage-fed land or under organic farming situations where kitchen waste compost, farm yard manure or agricultural field waste are added to the soil (Petropoulos, 2002). A beef or dairy operation can easily maintain a good acreage of land under fenugreek rotation by using farm waste as a source of fertilizer, reducing the cost of production in the process.
Alhadi et al. (1999) found that application of gibberellic acid (GA3) to fenugreek seed before sowing caused a slight change in the growth characteristics and physico-biochemical properties of standing crops maintained under water deficient conditions. Our preliminary greenhouse and field trials at Lethbridge, western Canada also indicated that application of a foliar spray consisting of 90% pure GA3 (at concentrations of 0, 30, 60, 90, 120 ppm) mixed with 0.3% (w/v) surfactant and application of salts such as ferrous sulfate, calcium chloride, cupric sulfate, magnesium sulfate, ammonium sulfate and ammonium molybdate at a concentration of 10 mM with 0.3% (w/v) surfactant significantly improved fenugreek seed yield and reduced maturity duration (Basu et al., 2007). Ortuno et al. (1998) reported a significant increase in diosgenin content in fenugreek leaves and seeds treated with benzylaminopurine. Alagukannan and Vijaykumar (1999) also reported that application of 1-napthylacetic acid (NAA) to seed increased the number of seeds per pod and, seed size in fenugreek, while application of maleic hydrazide (MH) and 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) to seed increased the seed protein content.
Weeds can be difficult to control in fenugreek production. Moyer et al. (2003) evaluated weed management in irrigated fenugreek grown in rotation with other annual crops. Without herbicide application, they found weeds contributed 37 to 86% of the total dry matter yield. The fenugreek plots treated with imazamox/imazethapyr, or combinations of imazamoz/imazethapyr or imazethapyr with ethalfluralin controlled annual weeds without causing yield loss. Growth of a previous crop on these fields did not have a significant effect on weed control. The study concluded that fenugreek can be successfully grown in conservation tillage systems in rotation with a wide range of crops that are grown on the Canadian prairies (Moyer et al., 2003).
Unlike most forage crops used in western Canada, fenugreek is an annual crop and so it would be easy to incorporate it into short term crop rotations as the legume component (Moyer et al., 2003). Since fenugreek can produce high biomass in a short period of time, it can be used as a "green manure" crop to increase the organic matter content in soils. Fenugreek can grow on marginal lands and may be useful for reclamation of land disturbed by industrial activity (Acharya et al., 2006).
The effects of gamma-irradiated sludge on the growth and yield of fenugreek have been reported by Pandya et al. (1991). These workers identified a significant increase in the yield of fenugreek plants grown in irradiated sludge (for 45–90 d), compared to controls. Their research suggests that there is a promising positive effect of recycling irradiated sludge for agricultural application and, that fenugreek can serve as an efficient tool in the process of reclamation.
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ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING FENUGREEK
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Fungal, bacterial, viral and insect mediated diseases are reported to be associated with considerable lowering of forage and seed yield in fenugreek and hence, are a serious agronomic concern (Jongebloed, 2004; Fogg et al., 2000; Prakash and Sharma, 2000; AAFRD, 1998). Some workers also have reported physiological diseases due to mineral deficiencies that are associated with lowering of forage yield in fenugreek (Sinskaya, 1961).
Abiotic Factors
It has been suggested that yellowing of some fenugreek plants under field conditions is connected to mineral deficiencies, in particular for elements like boron, magnesium, manganese or potassium (Sinskaya, 1961). Physiological diseases have been reported to be associated with early death and loss of forage and seed yield in fenugreek (Petropoulos, 2002). We in western Canada did not observe any mineral deficiency symptoms in the past fifteen years. In very dry and hot periods the fenugreek plants show stunted growth and yellowing of leaves with occasional leaf loss. The plants can sometimes recover if conditions improve.
Biotic Factors
In western Canada where fenugreek has been grown for some 20 yr we have not observed major disease or insect pest problems. However, there are reports of crop losses due to diseases and insect pests in other parts of the world.
The two most common fungal diseases infecting fenugreek are Cercospora leaf spot and powdery mildew (AAFRD, 1998). Powdery mildew on fenugreek, caused by Erysiphe polygoni can reduce crop yield (Jongebloed, 2004; Prakash and Sharma, 2000), and has the potential to affect biomass and seed yield in crops grown under moist agro-climatic conditions in North America (Basu et al., 2006b). In Australia, yield of fenugreek was seriously affected by blight disease caused by Cercospora traversiana and wilt caused by Fusarium oxsysporum and Rhizoctonia solani (Jongebloed, 2004). Other well known fungal diseases observed to be associated with fenugreek are collar rot, leaf spot and pod spot diseases (Petropoulos, 2002).
Fogg et al. (2000) reported a bacterial leaf spot in fenugreek which was caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae in New Jersey, USA. It also has been suggested that the bacterium Xanthomonas alfalfa can infect fenugreek (Petropoulos, 2002) leading to loss in productivity.
Bean Yellow Mosaic Virus, Alfalfa Mosaic Virus, Cow Pea Mosaic Virus, Soybean Mosaic Virus, Pea Mosaic Virus, Potato Virus A and Y, and Clover Vein Mosaic Virus are common viral infections of fenugreek (Petropoulos, 2002). These viral diseases have been associated with moderate loss of fenugreek seed and forage yield.
Lucy (2004) reported that in Australia, insects such as thrips, pod-borers and heliothis can cause serious damage to forage yield in fenugreek. Root rot by the soil borne nematode Meloidogyne incognita, which causes the death of immature plants has also been reported in Australia (Jongebloed, 2004). In southern Alberta (Canada) we only have observed a low level of insect pests such as Lygus bugs and to a lesser extent alfalfa plant bugs and aphids in fenugreek fields; beneficial insects such as ladybird beetles and parasitoid wasps also were observed (Basu et al., 2006a). No noticeable crop damage was noted from these infestations.
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PESTICIDAL PROPERTIES OF FENUGREEK
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Fenugreek is reported to be an insect tolerant crop and in India, dried fenugreek leaves are used to keep away harmful insect pests from stored grain (Edison 1995). Pemonge et al. (1997) reported that fenugreek seed and leaf preparations mixed with stored grain possessed insecticidal activity that killed pests like Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Fenugreek seed in a powdered form and fenugreek extracts appeared to be moderately toxic to the young larvae of these pests (LD25 = 18% in diet).
Nematicidal effects of fenugreek have been reported by Zia et al. (2001). They noted that larvae from the common phytopathogenic soil nematode Meloidogyne javanica, which is responsible for a number of diseases in commercial and food crops in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate countries, are effectively killed by fenugreek. Molluscicidal effects of fenugreek have also been reported against common Indian fresh-water snails such as Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus (Singh et al., 1997). Research by Stoessel et al. (1989) showed that traversianal, a diterpenoid aldehyde and metabolite of Cercospora traversiana (a common fenugreek fungal pathogen) is extremely toxic to snails and brine shrimp (Artemia). The molluscicidal properties of fenugreek was found to be related to Cercospora fungal pathogenesis (Stoessel et al., 1989).
Potential Of Fenugreek as a Forage Crop for The North American Cattle Industry
Interest in this crop came from the observation that it can provide high quality forage in all growth stages. The chemical composition, in vitro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD) and in vitro gas production on samples collected from greenhouse or field grown fenugreek at different growth stages were compared with alfalfa harvested at early-bloom (Mir et al., 1997). In this study 15 and 19 wk old greenhouse grown fenugreek had higher IVDMD (P < 0.05) than alfalfa. Total in vitro gas production was similar for fenugreek and alfalfa. Nine week old field grown fenugreek contained higher (P < 0.05) crude protein (CP) levels than fenugreek harvested after 15 or 19 wk or alfalfa cut at the early-bloom stage. Protein content and total in vitro gas production of mature fenugreek (19 wk old) was similar to that of early-bloom alfalfa (P > 0.05). Volatile fatty acid production and composition were generally similar for fenugreek and early-bloom alfalfa. From this study and others (Mir et al., 1993, 1998) it can be suggested that the nutritive value of fenugreek biomass regardless of its stage of growth, is at least comparable to that of early-bloom alfalfa. Steer growth on mature fenugreek and early bloom alfalfa silage supplemented by barley did not differ in a trial conducted in western Canada (Fig. 3
). The fact that fenugreek produces high quality forage in all growth stages, does not cause bloat in cattle and contains animal growth promoting substances such as diosgenin makes it an attractive forage crop for North American cattle producers (Mir et al., 1997, 1998).
Fenugreek also produces reasonably high forage yield under semiarid conditions. Under rain-fed conditions of southern Alberta fenugreek produces on an average (15 yr) 5.8 t ha–1 of dry matter whereas under irrigation the long term dry matter yield is 6.0 t ha–1. Under irrigation dry matter yields in excess of 10 t ha–1 were observed (Mir et al., 1997) but this is rare. High quality and dryland adapted forage crops such as fenugreek have potential to help beef producers by reducing animal feed requirements through increased feed efficiency and reduced water consumption for crop production. Dryland adaptation of fenugreek is of major significance in western Canada and drier parts of the USA as fresh water resources are shrinking in these areas.
Medicinal value of fenugreek has the potential to make the cattle industry less dependant on synthetic steroids that can contaminate water resources. At present, the livestock industry depends on synthetic steroid hormones to promote rapid weight gain in cattle. These chemicals are often found in animal excreta which can end up contaminating fresh water resources. Thus fenugreek cultivation can play an important role with respect to water quality management.
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SUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
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Fenugreek is a new crop to North America, including western Canada, with commercial, agricultural and environmental potential. New cultivars of this crop are now being made available to Canadian producers through direct introductions. In our collections there is ample genetic variability from which selection for important agricultural, food and medicinal traits can be made. Some of these genotypes differ radically in morphology, growth habit, biomass and seed production capability as well as in chemical constituents found in the seed; e.g., the saponin, fiber, protein, amino acid and fatty acid content. This variability often is overlooked and could impact clinical and nutraceutical applications of the crop. We have evidence that genetic variability and, genotype X environment interactions play a significant role in this crop for traits such as forage and seed yield as well as in the chemical constitution of the seed. Adequate information on how genotype and genotype X environmental interactions can be managed for medicinal purposes needs to be developed. Clinical studies need to be conducted using locally grown seed sources to ensure their efficacy as medicinal plants. New cultivars of fenugreek with improved seed yield and enhanced levels of chemical constituents can be developed to optimize it for use in both human and livestock applications. Fenugreek, a traditional "Old World" crop, appears to have a future in the "New World" through application of breeding of novel, new and regionally adapted varieties.
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NOTES
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All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permission for printing and for reprinting the material contained herein has been obtained by the publisher.
Received for publication September 19, 2007.
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ABSTRACT
HISTORY, ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION...
