Published online 8 September 2006
Published in Crop Sci 46:2263-2269 (2006)
© 2006 Crop Science Society of America
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
CSSA GOLDEN ANNIVERSARY SYMPOSIUM
Seeds
The Delivery System for Crop Science
Dennis M. TeKrony*
Dep. of Plant and Soil Science, Univ. of Kentucky, 429 Plant Science Bldg., 1405 Veterans Dr., Lexington, KY 40546-0321
* Corresponding author (dtekrony{at}uky.edu)
 |
ABSTRACT
|
|---|
Seeds have always played a dominant role in agriculture, serving as the primary mechanism by which crop plants are propagated. During the past 50 yr, seed science has matured to gain recognition as a sub-discipline of crop science, which was enhanced by the establishment of graduate training in seed biology at many land grant universities. These programs have provided leadership to the C-4 Division, which led to nine special CSSA publications, two major reviews, and several excellent text books written by members of C-4. The division sponsored more than 15 symposia covering seed production, seed health, synthetic seeds, and distance education. The efforts of seed scientists enhanced the quality control programs of the seed industry by contributing to the development and use of seed vigor tests, sophisticated genetic and herbicide trait tests, improved techniques for seed production and storage, and seed enhancements including film coating, priming, and pelleting. The major factors that have influenced seed science during the past five decades include: The Plant Variety Protection Act and the granting of utility patents, the influence of biotechnology, the use of seed enhancements, seed vigor testing, and the internet in teaching and training. Seeds will continue to provide a mechanism for the propagation of crop plants, however, in the future they may assume new roles as a delivery tool in high technology.
Abbreviations: GM, genetically modified • AP, adventitious presence • PEG, polyethylene glycol • SOP, standard operating procedures • ISO, International Organization for Standardization
|
INTRODUCTION
|
|---|
SEEDS AND seed science have been central components in the development of crop science for the past 50 yr. Seeds provide the major means of propagation by which genetic improvements in crops by plant breeders are delivered to the farmer. Thus, seeds have provided the plant materials that have led to increased yields of all major crop species. However, seeds are far more than just planting material for crop production. It has been estimated that about 75% of the world's food supply comes from consumption of seeds from five crop species, four of which are cereals in the family Poaceae (Egli, 1998; Harlan, 1995). In addition, livestock are dependent on seeds and forage generated from seeds for most of their feed, landscapes are dependent on seeds for establishment of turf systems, and plant genetic resources are particularly dependent on seeds for long term storage of germ plasm. More recently, genetic engineers have used seeds to deliver the genetically modified (GM) crops to the plant breeder, the farmer, and eventually, the consumer. Genetically modified crops have caused a major shift in the status of seed from a low value, but essential, commodity to a valuable intellectual property that is owned, protected, and traded internationally by multi-national and regional seed companies.
The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the contributions of seed science and Division C-4 (Seed Physiology, Production, and Technology) to crop science during the past five decades. To accomplish this I will concentrate on three major areas: (i) the growth and maturity of seed science and C-4 as a sub-discipline of crop science; (ii) the major factors influencing seed science and technology during this period, and (iii) the concerns and opportunities for seed science in the future.
|
Growth and Maturity of Seed Science and C-4
|
|---|
Although seeds have always been the primary means of propagating agronomic crops, there was little seed research in the USA before 1955. The seed research conducted was directed at methods of testing seeds for purity and germination, or at improving seed multiplication systems. Little information was available regarding the physiological mechanisms involved in seed development, maturation, germination, dormancy, or deterioration. Likewise, there were no seed science and/or technology textbooks and the only seed journals available were related primarily to seed testing. Thus, when the first issue of Crop Science was published in 1961, there were significant seed science graduate programs at only four land grant universities; Cornell, Oregon State, Iowa State, and Mississippi State (Fig. 1
). During the next thirty years, graduates from these four programs were hired at many other land grant universities and seed research and teaching programs were established. A recent survey indicated that by 1990 the number of faculty providing training in seed science and technology had increased from 17 in 1960 to 44 at 17 land grant universities (Fig. 1), which led to 183 MS and PhD students completing their degrees during the 1990s (Fig. 2
).
View larger version (30K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Fig. 1. The universities (States) with seed science graduate programs in the USA: 1960 (Oregon State, Mississippi State, Iowa State, and Cornell; additional programs added in 1980 (California-Davis, Washington State, Colorado State, Montana State, Texas Tech, Louisiana State, Alabama A&M, Florida, Kentucky, Ohio State, Michigan State); additional programs in 1990 (Brigham Young, Virginia Tech) and the total number of faculty in all universities for each year.
|
|
View larger version (26K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Fig. 2. The number of MS and PhD graduates from seed science graduate programs in each state from 1990 to 2000 and the total from all states for the decade.
|
|
The development of seed science at land grant universities during the past 40 yr provided the leadership for the development of Division C-4 as a sub-discipline of crop science. The graduates from these programs filled many key positions in the public (certification, foundation seed, seed testing, seed research, and extension) and private (seed production, seed quality control, seed research) sectors. This development also resulted in the publication of several excellent seed textbooks and scientific papers in Crop Science as well as other newly developed seed journals (Seed Technology, Seed Science and Technology, and Seed Science Research). The faculty in some of these graduate programs (i.e., Mississippi State University) provided training for many international students in seed science and technology, which has had a major impact on agriculture in South America, Asia, Africa, and other locations.
As seed programs developed at land grant universities division C-4 developed from a stepchild of larger Crop Science divisions to a strong component of the society. The annual Crop Science meeting provided an excellent forum for C-4 scientists to present research, exchange ideas and develop plans for the division. A highlight of the division's activities was the organization of many seed symposia with invited outside speakers at the annual meetings. These symposia identified critical areas needing research, which resulted in the publication of nine CSSA Special Publications (67 total papers). In 1985 the C-4 division recognized that the research conducted by its members was now more fundamental than implied in the original name, "Seed Production and Technology" and the name was changed to "Seed Physiology, Production, and Technology." In 1987 the division obtained sponsorship for a seed science award, which has been presented annually to recognize individuals or programs that have provided distinctive service to the development and utilization of quality seeds in agriculture. Thus, the discipline of seed science and Division C-4 of CSSA has developed and matured, following the pattern of a developing embryo, for the past 50 yr and has made major contributions in research, teaching, and training in the seed industry and the Crop Science Society of America.
|
Major Factors That Have Influenced Seed Science and C-4
|
|---|
Plant Variety Protection and Plant Patents
The importance of seeds as a delivery system for improved cultivars can easily be documented by the average increases in crop yields that have occurred during the last 50 yr in the USA for corn (Zea mays L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L), soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], cotton (Gossypium spp.), and other agronomic crops (Egli, 1998; Fig. 3
). Although there is some year to year variability, the yield of all four crops exhibited a consistent upward trend, which is larger for corn (119 kg/ha/yr) than for cotton, soybean, or wheat (7, 23, and 30 kg/ha/yr, respectively). In contrast to yield, the average retail cost of seed (not adjusted for inflation) for these four crops and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) changed little from 1955 to 1973, but then increased gradually (soybean, cotton) or sharply (alfalfa, corn) until 2000 when a second accelerated increase occurred for corn, cotton, and soybean. (Fig. 4
). (There was little change in retail costs of wheat seed during the 50 yr period.) Coincidently, these changes in retail seed costs occurred shortly after the passage of the Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA) in 1970 and after the release of patented, transgenically developed herbicide and/or insect tolerant cultivars of corn, soybean, and cotton in 2000. Thus, increases in private cultivar development and seed prices can be related to proprietary rights legislation, which had a major impact on the seed industry and seed science.
View larger version (22K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Fig. 3. Average yields in USA for soybean, corn, cotton and wheat from 1955 to 2004. Data from annual issues of Crop Production (USDA).
|
|
View larger version (26K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Fig. 4. Average retail seed costs (dollars/unit, not adjusted for inflation) for all corn, wheat, soybean (A) and cotton and alfalfa (B) seed planted in USA from 1955 to 2004. Unit: soybean, wheat = bushel; corn = 80 000 kernels; cotton = 100 pounds, alfalfa = pound.
|
|
With the exception of hybrid seed production, few seed companies had proprietary rights over plant varieties until the passage of PVPA in 1970. This legislation stimulated research and cultivar development in the major grain crops and caused a shift in cultivar development from the public to the private sector. Soybean cultivars used by farmers shifted from 70% that were publicly developed in 1980 to 70 to 90% that were privately developed by 1997 (Fernandez-Cornejo, 2004). Both legislative and judicial action contributed to intellectual property rights in the USA. These investments in cultivar development have been protected through certificates of protection under PVPA for sexually and tuber-propagated cultivars and more recently under the Patent Act through utility patents. The seed industry has also made a major transition over the past three decades, as small seed firms vanished due to acquisitions and mergers and a new industry dominated by large multinational companies with primary investments in the pharmaceutical and petrochemical industry was created.
As the share of private research dollars spent in plant breeding increased from 50 to 550 million from 1960 to 1997, the share of public expenditures gradually declined (Fernandez-Cornejo, 2004). The rapid expansion of private cultivar development also had a major impact on seed multiplication, seed testing and research, and training programs in both the public and private sectors. The fewer public cultivar releases, especially in soybean, alfalfa, and cotton, reduced the production of foundation and certified seed, but increased the cultivar testing programs of public agencies. Proprietary ownership also placed much greater emphasis on the development of laboratory tests of genetic purity by seed scientists and the owners of privately developed cultivars as they sought to prevent infringement on their cultivars. The need for protection intensified in the last decade as the retail cost of seed of new transgenically developed cultivars of soybean, cotton, and corn increased (Fig. 4). Thus, during the last 50 yr the status of seeds of major crop cultivars has changed from a simple commodity to an intellectual property. The owners of these cultivars can now recover the costs of research and development and still make a reasonable profit; however, this change has resulted in higher seed costs and greater expectations from the consumer.
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
A driving force behind cultivar development in corn, soybean, cotton, and canola (Brassica napus L var. napus) in the last decade has been the introduction of modern biotechnology to agriculture. The ability to move genes from one species to another and produce transgenic seeds has been as revolutionary as the development of hybrid corn. Farmers in North America embraced biotechnology more willingly and quickly than the seed industry predicted. This has resulted in a record number of PVP certificates and utility plant patents issued for these crops since 2002. (Fernandez-Cornejo, 2004). Likewise, the percentage of the corn, cotton, and soybean crops planted with herbicide or insecticide-resistant cultivars has increased rapidly since 1996, and in 2005 more than 90% of the soybean acreage planted in the USA was planted with herbicide resistant cultivars. Biotechnology has increased the retail cost of these new transgenic cultivars during the last decade (Fig. 4) and changed the emphasis of seed research.
A major focus of seed research on genetic purity has been laboratory testing of seed progeny for the absence or presence of transgenic traits. This research led to sophisticated testing of seeds to verify genetic identity using methods that were previously not available. Thus, seed testing for genetic identity and purity moved from simple tests of morphological traits to the development of routine tests at the DNA and protein levels that use polymerase chain reactions to allow even greater discrimination among cultivars. Because of the large investment in biotechnology all major seed companies have now established state of the art laboratories to measure genetic traits and to protect their investment. Commercial seed laboratories also offer these same tests, which are widely used to measure genetic purity by the smaller, regional seed companies. There has been a major effort to train seed scientists to conduct these new tests in seed companies, seed laboratories, and regulatory agencies. There have also been many referee (ring) tests conducted to ensure standardization and accuracy of these tests at all levels.
As the use of new transgenic cultivars has increased in the last decade (Fernandez-Cornejo, 2004), the emphasis on seed quality has also increased. High levels of genetic purity of herbicide tolerant cultivars are essential to ensure adequate plant stands following applications of herbicides at the early stages of plant development. Although North American farmers have embraced the use of these GM cultivars, they are not widely used or accepted in many areas of the world, especially the European Union. In fact there is a real concern in many countries that unintended adventitious presence (AP) of transgenic materials may contaminate non-GM seed and grain used for food purposes. The potential for contamination in non-GM crops has also led to consumer questions regarding the need for thresholds for AP in food and feed and the need for labeling for the presence of GM crops at the marketplace. The concerns of unintended AP in non-GM corn has also raised questions about field isolation standards for hybrid corn seed production in transgenic cultivars. It has also led to additional field research to examine the genetic standards for isolation, pollen movement, and mechanical mixing that occur during seed production of GM corn hybrids to prevent contamination of non-GM grain, and seed and has placed greater emphasis on genetic purity at the field level. Seed testing laboratories are now offering additional tests of not only GM seed, but non-GM seed as well for the presence of genetically modified traits in non-GM seed lots before and during marketing for food and feed use.
Seed Enhancement and Treatment
Fungicide and insecticide seed treatments have been used for many years for corn, cotton, small grain, and many other agronomic and vegetable crops as an effective means of protecting the seed against various stresses in the seedbed. Although these pesticides remain as an important component of seed treatment, seed scientists have investigated many other enhancements during the last few years, some of which are now used by the seed industry. Seed enhancement in this context includes seed hydration (priming), pelleting and coating of the seed to improve seed quality and performance in a wide range of planting or storage environments.
Seed hydration for the physiological enhancement of seed performance has been the focus of intense research by seed scientists, especially in private industry, for some time. The methods used include: prehydration, priming (osmoconditioning), matriconditioning, and pregermination (McDonald, 2000). Seed hydration involves increasing seed moisture to a precise moisture level which initiates the metabolic activity for germination and allows it to proceed to just short of radicle protrusion before drying the seed. Priming started in the 1970s and is the controlled soaking of seeds in aerated salts or high molecular weight compounds such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) (Welbaum et al., 1998). Priming has many effects on seeds; however, the most consistent response across a large number of species is increased speed and uniformity of germination. Commerical priming technology has evolved steadily for the past 30 yr from osmotic priming to solid matrix priming, and drum priming and is used primarily on high value vegetable and flower seeds. The priming procedures are sometimes patented and are held in close confidence by seed companies. In recent years, plug producers have also focused on pregerminated seed, which, in contrast to priming, allows radicle emergence before redrying, which supposedly provides faster, more uniformly germinating seedlings. Regardless of the method used, the seed should be planted as soon as possible following seed enhancement and, if not planted, will have a limited storage life compared to non-primed seed.
Seed pelleting has been used for many years to modify the physical shape and size of the seed to facilitate singulation and precision planting of very small and/or irregular shaped vegetable, ornamental, and some agronomic seeds. Seed treatment compounds such as: growth regulators, inoculants, micronutrients, fungicides, insecticides, and other seed protectants have been added to the pellet to improve seed performance. Hydrophilic or hydrophobic materials can also be added to the pellet to provide more or less moisture to assist germination in variable planting environments. Research has shown that seed pelleting is a complex process. The pellet must have adequate durability and weight for accurate placement and the proper combination of filler, binder, and other additives to allow seed germination. This complexity has resulted in the development of specialized seed pelleting techniques, which have great commercial value and are closely guarded by the seed industry.
Seed coating technology has developed rapidly during the past two decades and provides an economical approach to seed enhancement, especially for larger seeded agronomic and horticultural crops. An advantage of seed coating is that the seed enhancement material (fungicide, insecticide, or micronutrient) is placed directly on the seed without obscuring the seed shape. Seed coatings of natural or synthetic polymers (film coat) have gained rapid acceptance by the seed industry as a much safer, but reliable method of fungicide or insecticide seed treatment. These coatings are extremely thin, which allows multiple layers on the seed with only a 1 to 10% increase in seed weight. The film coat provides a uniform, yet precise placement of chemicals at much lower rates than the traditional seed treatment systems and offers the opportunity to add many enhancement layers as needed to improve performance. Polymers that respond to specific affinities to moisture and/or temperature in the soil environment have already been tested and are commercially used to synchronize flowering in hybrid corn seed production.
Shifting Emphasis toward Higher Seed Quality
Changes in cultivar development have occurred rapidly during the last 10 yr and these changes have had a direct impact on crop science and agriculture. New herbicide and insecticide resistant cultivars developed from biotechnology are being widely used by soybean, cotton, canola, and cotton farmers and retail prices for seed are much higher. The use of herbicide resistant cultivars has placed a greater emphasis on cultivar genetic purity in the field and stimulated laboratory testing to ensure genetic identity and protect seed company investments. This resulted in the rapid development of routine and inexpensive laboratory tests at the DNA and protein levels for the absence or presence of transgenic traits in the seed.
Higher retail seed costs have caused farmers to consider lower seeding rates and precision planting, which places a greater demand on seed quality and stand establishment. The emphasis on emergence and stand establishment has led to the acceptance of seed vigor as a routine measure of physiological seed quality in corn, cotton, soybean, and many other vegetable and ornamental crops. Surveys (Ferguson, 1995; TeKrony, 2001) have shown an increase in the number of seed vigor tests conducted in North America, with nearly 100% of corn and cotton seed tested for vigor before reaching retail sales outlets. Likewise, the concept of seed vigor has now been included in the International Rules for Seed Testing and two tests, accelerated aging germination and electrical conductivity are approved for soybean and lettuce, respectively (ISTA, 2001).
The adaptation of more encompassing quality control systems that include the entire seed business has been a major accomplishment in the seed industry that improves seed quality. Instead of focusing on quality assurance for one crop or only in the laboratory, many seed companies have now developed quality management systems for seed production, conditioning, storage, testing, and marketing. Many seed companies have reviewed their entire quality control system and developed standard operating procedures (SOP), an International Organization for Standardization (ISO), or other quality systems at the regional, national, and global levels to enhance genetic, pathological, and physiological seed quality. Thus, seed quality has moved from a piecemeal program for one or two traits or crops to a company wide system for all departments.
Use of the Internet in Teaching and Training
The development of the internet and the World Wide Web have had a major impact on seed research, teaching, and the seed industry by providing information delivery systems for seed science and technology. Web sites are now available for nearly all graduate programs in seed science in the USA and they provide valuable information on faculty research emphasis, publications, graduate students, and course options. Websites have been developed which provide photographic images and videos of seed identification, seedling growth, and other seed quality traits that can be used by seed laboratories, seed companies, and students for teaching and training. SEED-BIOLOGY-L{at}cornell.edu is an electronic mailing list created for the purpose of fostering a worldwide exchange of seed biology research information. The list is co-sponsored by Division C-4 of the CSSA, the USDA/CSREES Western Regional Cooperative Research Project W-1168 "Seed Biology, Ecology and Technology" (USA), the Seed Biology Program at Cornell University (USA), and the International Society for Seed Science (ISSS). The list presently has about 500 worldwide subscribers in at least 45 different countries.
The internet has also enhanced the development of worldwide quality control systems in the seed industry. This allows a seed company to quickly train personnel on the entire quality control system (ISO, SOP) including: production, conditioning, testing, and marketing. The internet also provides access to an efficient means of seed inventory management, cultivar identity, and specificity and laboratory and field protocols. It has provided a quick and reliable means of communication within the seed company at all levels of production, marketing, and management with a tremendous savings of time and dollars to the industry.
Distance learning through electronic websites has been utilized by Colorado State University for the past decade to train seed analysts and seed company personal on various aspects of seed purity, germination, and development. Additional courses in specific topic areas (vigor, pathology, deterioration, production) will be developed in future years to the benefit of undergraduate and graduate students as well as seed professionals that do not have ready access to these topics. Likewise, most seed journals are on line and the manuscripts are reviewed electronically, which has speeded the time of review and allowed for faster publication and access of research results.
|
Concerns and Opportunities for Seed Science and C-4
|
|---|
Will Research and Training in Seed Science Continue at Land Grant Universities?
In the summer of 2005 I surveyed the membership of division C-4 to determine their opinions on the future role of public/private research and teaching in seed science and to determine what they felt were the major research needs. Those members from private industry that responded expressed a real concern about losing graduate programs and students in publicly funded university programs. One member commented "the human resource pool for seed science and technology is drying up quickly and I don't see that changing in the near future." Although the seed industry now conducts some applied seed research, there was a concern that private research is too narrow and not directed toward benefiting the entire industry. Likewise, the private sector could not offer the training in plant and seed science that is available at universities with active seed science programs.
In 2005 I surveyed the graduate programs training students in seed science and found that 59 MS and PhD students graduated in the past 5 yr (2000–2004) (Fig. 5
). This total represents approximately 12 students per year, which is a decline from about 18 students per year in the 1990s (Fig. 2). It is important to note that four programs that had been active in the 1990s had zero graduates over the last 5 yr. Likewise, the total number of graduate programs teaching in seed science declined from 17 to 13 (1990 vs. 2005) and the number of faculty in these programs had also declined from 44 to 35 (Fig. 5). Thus, it appears that industry concerns are justified, since there is a decline in graduate students and programs in seed science. The question is why. The faculty surveyed responded that the primary reason for the declines was lack of funding from both the public and private sectors. It appears that competitive grant funding that was previously available from the private seed industry for traditional seed science research is now going directly to molecular biology. Another concern of seed scientists in Division C-4 is that USDA competitive grant funding has never identified seed science as a primary area for funding. This lack of funding has reduced assistantships for graduate students and caused established seed scientists to frequently boot-leg seed research on other grant funding. I suggest that Division C-4 look at this problem as an opportunity and take the leadership to resolve it for the benefit of the seed industry and graduate programs.
View larger version (29K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Fig. 5. The total number of seed science graduate faculty in each state university in 2005 and the MS and PhD graduates from these programs (in parenthesis) for each state from 2000 to 2005. The total graduates from all states for the 5 yr was 59.
|
|
As Seed Costs Increase, Will Consumers Demand Higher Seed Quality?
Precision planting has been routinely used for the last two decades for many vegetable and ornamental crops for either field or greenhouse production. This seed must meet a high level of physiological quality and demands a higher price per unit. Thus, it has been tested for seed germination and vigor and is usually primed and pelleted. This high level of seed quality is demanded by the end user to assure maximum seedling emergence and stand establishment in spaced plantings in the field or in plug trays in the greenhouse.
In contrast to vegetable seed, seed of many agronomic crops is not precision planted and usually does not demand such high seed quality levels. Thus, for many years seed of agronomic crops was relatively inexpensive (Fig. 4) and could be routinely planted at rates higher than those needed for maximum yield, which provided insurance against poor emergence. However, with the release of private and transgenic cultivars, retail seed prices have increased (Fig. 4) and the demands for high seed quality are changing. A summary of seed expenditures as a percentage share of the total operating costs (dollars per planted acre) for the past 30 yr for four Agronomic crops is shown in Fig. 6
(www.ers.usda.gov/Data/CostsAndReturns/; verified 30 June 2006). Although the retail seed costs per unit were much lower in 1975 (Fig. 4), the operating costs were also much lower. Thus, the seed cost ranged from 5 to 
15% of total operating costs until 1995, when they started to increase for corn, soybean, and cotton, while wheat seed costs declined. A sharp increase in the contribution of seed costs to the total operating costs occurred in the last five yr for corn, soybean, and cotton, which is when the wide use of transgenic cultivars occurred for these crops. If the seed expenditures for these crops and others continue to increase in future years, farmers will probably demand the better performance associated with higher quality. Likewise, seeding rates may be reduced, as already has occurred for cotton, and may occur in some other crops (i.e., soybean). This will place much higher emphasis on physiological seed quality to achieve maximum emergence in a wide range of environments and the routine use of seed vigor testing for a large number of agronomic crops. This demand will provide a tremendous opportunity for seed scientists in both the public and private sector to identify and test for seed quality traits and relate this information to the consumer.
Will Genetic Modifications of Crop Quality be Utilized by the Seed Industry?
As was reviewed earlier, farmers in the USA and some other areas of the world have readily embraced the use of transgenic cultivars of major Agronomic crops in the last decade (James, 2004; Fernandez-Cornejo, 2004). The majority of agricultural scientists anticipate even greater benefits from biotechnology in coming decades to meet the world wide needs for food and fiber in the future (Borlaug, 2000). Research has already identified many transformation events to improve the quality-of-life as well as insect and weed control in many crop species (Cohen, 2005). These traits relate to many areas of plant growth and include: abiotic stress tolerance, seed composition improvement, nutritional enhancement, prolonged shelf-life of seed products, and pharmacological uses. None of these traits specifically relate to seeds as propagules, but rather to seeds as food, feed, and industrial or other products. Before these traits can be marketed however, it must be recognized that the use of biotechnology in agriculture has been controversial. Many groups in the European Union and other areas are opposed to biotechnology, and have been effective in creating market resistance and raising regulatory requirements. Thus, unless a trait has a market potential and consumer attraction, it will be difficult to commercialize as a new crop (Bradford et al., 2005; McElroy, 2003). Likewise, restrictive regulations are being enacted through international mechanisms such as the Cartegena Protocol regarding "Living Modified Organisms." Therefore, seed companies may be reluctant to complete the marketing and regulatory hurdles needed to enter the biotech market for a trait that only improves seed biological quality. Unless these issues can be resolved the opportunities for improving seed biological quality and the benefits from biotechnology may be delayed or reduced in diverse crops for many decades. This could be a real challenge (opportunity?) for future seed research in biotechnology.
Will Seed Remain as the Delivery System for Crop Science?
At this stage nearly all benefits derived from basic research on the biochemistry, physiology, genomics, and biotechnology of crop plants moves as input and output traits through the seed and cultivar to the consumer (Fig. 7
). This sequence was described by Dr. Kent Bradford (personal communication, 2005) when describing the applications of biotechnology to agriculture. Although the acceptance of biotechnology will be challenged, many of these traits will eventually be incorporated and delivered through the seed. This will certainly result in increased market value of seeds as intellectual property. Thus, in future decades there will be continued demand for high quality seed to achieve the maximum performance of these improved cultivars in agriculture, which will be an opportunity for research in seed science and Division C-4 of CSSA. For these reasons, I believe that seeds will remain the delivery system for Crop Science and agriculture for many generations.
View larger version (23K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
|
Fig. 7. The applications of biotechnology in agriculture will flow from various areas of research as input and output traits through seed as a delivery system to the farmer. (With permission from Dr. Kent J. Bradford, University of California–Davis.)
|
|
Received for publication December 1, 2005.
|
REFERENCES
|
|---|
- Bradford, K.J., A. Van Deynze, N. Gutterson, W. Parrott, and S.H. Strauss. 2005. Regulating transgenic crops sensibly: Lessons from plant breeding, biotechnology and genomics. Nat. Biotechnol. 23:439–444.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
- Borlaug, N.E. 2000. Ending world hunger: The promise of Biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry. Plant Physiol. 124:487–490.[Free Full Text]
- Cohen, J.I. 2005. Poorer nations turn to publicly developed GM crops. Nat. Biotechnol. 23:27–33.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
- Egli, D.B. 1998. Seed Biology and the yield of grain crops. CAB International, New York.
- Ferguson, J. 1995. An introduction to vigour testing. p. 1–9. In H.A. van de Venter (ed.) Seed vigour testing seminar. International Seed Testing Association, Copenhagen, Denmark.
- Fernandez-Cornejo. Jorge. 2004. The Seed Industry in U.S. Agriculture. Agric. Inf. Bull. No. 786, Econ. Res. Serv. [Online]. Available at www.ers.usda.gov (verified 23 June 2006). USDA, Washington, D.C.
- Harlan, J.R. 1995. The Living Fields: Our Agricultural Heritage. Oxford Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
- International Seed Testing Association. 2001. Rules Amendments 2001. Seed Sci. Technol. 29(Suppl):113–121.
- James, C. 2004. Preview: Global Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops: 2004. [Online]. Available at www.isaaa.org/bin/Briefs/32/index.htm (verified 23 June 2006). ISAAA Briefs No. 32. ISAAA: Ithaca, NY.
- McDonald, M.B. 2000. Seed Priming. p 287–316. In M. Black and J.D. Bewley (ed.) Seed Technology and Its Biological Basis. Sheffield Academic Press, Sheffield, UK.
- McElroy, D. 2003. Sustaining agbiotechnology through the lean times. Nat. Biotechnol. 21:996–1002.[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
- TeKrony, D.M. 2001. ISTA seed survey–2000. International Seed Testing Association News Bulletin 122:14–15.
- Welbaum, G.E., Z. Shen, M.O. Oluoch, and L.W. Jett. 1998. The evolution and effects of priming vegetable seeds. Seed Technol. 20:209–236.
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
