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SEED PHYSIOLOGY, PRODUCTION & TECHNOLOGY

Red Clover Seed Production

VI. Effect and Economics of Soil pH Adjusted by Lime Application

National Forage Seed Production Research Center, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, 3450 SW Campus Way, Corvallis, OR 97331

^* Corresponding author (steinerj{at}onid.orst.edu)

	ABSTRACT

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) is an important forage legume grown in North America and Europe. A primary region for world seed production is western Oregon, USA. Stand decline in Oregon seed fields can occur from root rot disease, caused by Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. Increasing soil pH by lime application has been shown to reduce the incidence of Fusarium-caused diseases in numerous other crops. The purpose of this research was to determine the effect and economics of soil pH on red clover seed production and root health. Lime was applied (0, 5.6, and 11.2 Mg ha^-1) in autumn 1993 near Corvallis, OR. The effects of normal and delayed spring herbage removal, and first and second-year seed crop age (1994 and 1995) were also examined. Soil pH in May 1996 after planting a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation crop in the three lime treatments was 5.6, 6.1, and 6.4, respectively. Clover plants in the untreated control were generally chlorotic and shorter than plants in the two lime treatments before herbage removal in spring 1994. First-year seed yields were greater with than without lime, but second year yields were unaffected. Soil pH did not affect clover phytomass after herbage removal in either year, and did not affect straw and grain yields of a wheat rotation crop. Soil pH was correlated with clover root diameter (r = 0.54; P 0.01), and unlike other crops, was correlated with fusarium root rot severity (r = 0.69; P 0.001). Within the range of soil pH values examined, and for the combined 2 yr of production, neither lime treatment produced a more economical seed yield than the untreated control. For the range of soil pH conditions, without improved root health, and in the absence of any affect on rotation crop yield, lime application cannot be justified solely for the benefit of red clover seed production.

	INTRODUCTION

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
RED CLOVER IS AN IMPORTANT forage legume grown in the USA, Canada, and northern and eastern Europe. A primary region for world red clover seed production is in the Willamette Valley of western Oregon, where the principal root rot pathogen is F. solani. Root rot severity in red clover seed fields is aggravated by root borer [Hylastinus obscurus (Marsham)] infestations (Steiner and Alderman, 1999). The maximum stand life for red clover seed production is typically 2 yr, often with significant declines in yield in the second year of seed production (Oliva et al., 1994b; Steiner et al., 1997). Root rot caused by F. oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. can severely injure red clover plants grown for forage in north central USA (Taylor and Smith, 1995). Cultivars selected for resistance to F. oxysporum produce more herbage in forage systems than do regionally adapted ecotypes without resistance, but F. oxysporum resistance does not impart protection against F. solani when improved cultivars are grown in Oregon seed production systems (Steiner et al., 1997). Spring herbage removal is necessary to enhance synchronization of subsequent flowering with warm weather when insect pollinators are fully active. Herbage removal also helps control some weed species. Seed yield of red clover can be optimized by timing spring herbage removal based on the number of accumulated growing heat units, soil-water availability, and general health of the root system (Steiner et al., 1995). Seed fields that have poor root health should have the herbage removed earlier than fields with good health. When irrigation is available for red clover seed production, soil water content can be maintained at high levels during flowering following spring herbage removal, which reduces the severity of root rot disease with resulting increased seed yields, particularly in the second year seed crop (Oliva et al., 1994b).

High soil pH levels have frequently been associated with low levels of wilt diseases in ornamental and vegetable crops (Jones et al., 1989). Specifically, lime applications combined with fungicide and all nitrate-N control Fusarium wilt caused by F. oxysporum in chrysanthemum (Endranthema grandiflora Tzvelev.) production systems (Engelhard and Woltz, 1973). Similarly, increasing soil pH with lime alone reduced the incidence and severity of Fusarium wilt of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) (Albert, 1946) and in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) when combined with high nitrate- and low ammonium-N fertilizer (Woltz and Jones, 1973). The disease resistance benefits of lime applications are due to increased soil pH and not increased available Ca (Jones and Woltz, 1969). Increasing soil pH by lime applications increases seed production of red clover (Cullen, 1968) and crimson clover (T. incarnatum L.) (Davis, 1949).

Among the micronutrients affected by soil pH, B has been shown to have a function in legume seed reproduction. Limited available B in 5.8 pH soils can reduce seed yield in white clover, without an apparent effect on the number of flower heads produced (Sherrell, 1983). Red clover seed production is more sensitive to inadequate B availability than white clover, with reduced flower head production as well as reduced number of seeds produced per flower head (Sherrell, 1983). Under low soil pH conditions, crimson clover flowering increased with added lime and the effects enhanced by the addition of B (Naftel, 1942). White clover seed yields doubled when soil B content was increased from 1 to 2 mg kg^-1 (Johnson and Wear, 1967).

Because red clover seed is produced in the maritime Pacific Northwest on soils with low pH and where Fusarium root rot is prevalent, increasing soil pH may increase stand longevity by improved root health that would thus allow increased productivity from a single crop planting. Also, no information is available describing the response of red clover to lime under different spring herbage removal times and ages of stands typical to these seed production systems. The purpose of this research was to determine the effect and economics of soil pH adjusted by lime application, and its interactions with two ages of stands and the timing of spring herbage removal on red clover seed yield. Because red clover is grown in rotation with other crops such as temperate grass grown for seed and cereals that utilize soil acidifying ammonium-based N fertilizers, the effects of lime application on winter- and spring-planted wheat established by direct seeding after red clover seed production were also studied.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
The field used in the experiment was chosen based on its low pH compared with other fields available at the Hyslop Research Farm near Corvallis, OR (fine-silty, mixed, mesic Aquultic Argixerolls). This humid temperate marine seed production region has soils that are often less than pH 6.0. The prior crop was a perennial grass that had been fertilized with ammonium sulfate and there was no record of lime application in the prior 5 yr. Soil pH was determined (USEPA, 1987) from a composite of soil sampled to the 200-mm depth along two transects across the length of the field. The Shoemaker, McLean, and Pratt (SMP) single-buffer method (McLean, 1982) was used to estimate the farm-grade ground lime requirement to adjust the soil pH from 5.5 to 6.0 and 7.0. Farm-grade ground lime was applied on 30 Aug. 1993 at 5.6 and 11.2 Mg ha^-1 by a commercial application truck in 10-m-wide by 40-m-long plots. A no-lime-applied control of the same dimensions as the lime treatments was also included, with the three treatments replicated four times and arranged in a randomized complete block design. The lime amendment was incorporated with a tandem disc to a 10-cm depth. A soil-incorporated application of EPTC (S-ethyl dipropyl carbamothioate) herbicide at 4.3 kg ha^-1 was made before planting, with the entire area tilled for seed bed preparation. Soil pH was determined in all plots in May of 1996 from soil samples collected using the methods described above.

Crop culture followed common commercial practices for red clover seed production in western Oregon. Certified ‘Kenland’ seed was planted 2 Sept. 1993 at 4.1 kg ha^-1 in rows 0.3 m apart using a seed drill. The field was irrigated by overhead sprinklers every 2 d until seedling establishment to the first true leaf stage using 35 mm of water total. Annual grasses and broadleaf weeds, as well as volunteer clover seedlings, were controlled in the winter of 1995 after the first production year with diuron {[3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea]} at a rate of 3.2 kg ha^-1. Aphids [Nearctaphis bakeri (Cowen)] and lygus (Lygus spp.) were controlled with chlorpyrifos {0, 0, dimethyl S-[(2-ethylsulfinyl)-ethyl] phosphorothioate} applied in late June at the bud stage of development at a rate of 1 kg ha^-1. Four honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) hives were placed adjacent to the experimental area at the beginning of bloom 2 wk after the insecticide application.

The normal and delayed herbage removal treatments were imposed at across the lime treatment plots using a commercial forage chopper in a split-plot fashion with plot lengths of 20 m. Crown height following herbage removal was 6 cm. In 1994, the dates for normal and delayed herbage removal were 23 May and 20 June, respectively. In 1995, removal dates were 22 May and 19 June, respectively. Before spring herbage removal in 1994, plots were visually evaluated for general growth appearance. Plant growth was assessed as either normal or reduced based on relative plant height, and herbage color as either green or chlorotic. There were no visual differences from after herbage removal to harvest time in 1994 or during the entire 1994-1995 crop year, so no further visual ratings were made.

Two 1- by 3-m areas were chosen at random within the center of each plot when the flower heads were mature and harvested for seed yield (12 and 8 Aug. in 1994 and 1995, respectively). Harvest was done with a sickle-bar mower with a 1-m wide head. The harvested plants were placed in burlap bags and hung on clothes lines until threshing. Plants in the bags were dried in a forced-air oven at 32°C for 24 h before threshing, then weighed, threshed in a belt thresher, and the seeds cleaned and weighed. Seed yield was subtracted from the harvest dry mass to calculate season-end phytomass produced from the time of spring herbage removal until harvest.

After seed harvest in 1995, the crown and taproot of 20 plants were sampled at random to a 150-mm depth from the delayed herbage removal treatment areas in each lime treatment plot from areas where seed yield samples were harvested. Each taproot was measured for diameter below the crown and then cut lengthwise from the crown to the end of the root tip. Root rot severity was scored on a scale of 0 to 5 (Oliva et al., 1994b) with: 0, completely healthy root tissue; 1, a few superficial light-brown lesions affecting <20% of the taproot; 2, a few superficial dark-brown lesions affecting 20 to 40% of the taproot; 3, extended and profound dark-brown lesions affecting 40 to 60% of the taproot; 4, extended and profound dark-brown lesions affecting 60 to 80% of the taproot; and 5, >80% of the taproot tissue decayed or the plant was dead. Root halves were also examined for the absence or presence of root borers (Steiner and Alderman, 1999). Root borer results are presented with 5% confidence.

To determine the effect of soil pH on a typical rotation crop produced after red clover grown for seed, winter ‘Hill-81’ and spring ‘Pennawawa’ wheat cultivars were planted on 20 Oct. 1995 and 8 Mar. 1996, respectively. Both plantings were by direct seeding using a 3-m wide no-tillage drill. Wheat plots were planted across lime treatment plots in strips 12-m wide. Wheat plots were planted without regard to the placement of the red clover seed herbage removal treatments. The wheat seeds were planted 25-mm deep in rows 0.18-m apart at 112 and 195 kg ha^-1, respectively. The wheat cultivars were arranged randomly within the replicate blocks among 12-m wide plots of the already-established red clover plants, with the lime treatments as subplots. Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] was applied preplant at 7 L ha^-1 on 13 October to the plots used for the winter wheat planting; and postplant, preemergence at 4.7 L ha^-1 on 10 March for the spring wheat planting. Because the 2-yr-old red clover stands declined during the winter, no attempt was made to produce a third seed crop. Therefore, cloryralid [3,6-dichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid] herbicide was applied at 290 mL ha^-1 over all plots on 9 May 1996 to control any surviving red clover plants in the to-be third year clover plots and the winter and spring-planted wheat plots. For the winter-planted wheat, 135 kg ha^-1 of 46-0-0-6 (N-P-K-S) fertilizer was broadcast applied on 4 Mar. 1996. For the spring-planted cultivar, 22 kg ha^-1 of 46-0-0-6 fertilizer was placed below the drill row, and 110 kg ha^-1 of fertilizer was broadcast applied 15 April. Plots 7-m long were harvested 3 Aug. 1996 using a 1-m wide self-propelled plot combine, and the grain was cleaned. Straw weight was estimated from the average of two 3-m² areas with the spikes removed by hand knives, the straw cut at ground level, placed in burlap bags, and dried in an oven at 38°C for 24 h, and then weighed.

The two clover seed production years (Y) were used as main plots and tested with ANOVA using the Y x block (B) interaction (Table 1). Lime treatments (L) were the subplots and, along with the Y x L interaction, were tested by the Y x L x B three-way interaction. Herbage removal time (H) was the sub-subplot treatment, and it with its interactions (Y x H, L x H, and Y x L x H) tested by the Y x L x H x B four-way interaction. Regression analysis was used to describe relationships between season-end phytomass and seed yield for significant interactions involving both measured variables. Wheat cultivar (C) differences were tested with the C x B interaction (Table 2). The lime treatment subplot differences along with the C x L interaction were tested by the C x L x B interaction. A partial budget method was used to determine the economics of lime use with all other red clover seed production practice costs held constant. Red clover seed prices used in the partial budget comparisons were $1.65, 2.20, 2.75, 3.30, and 3.85 kg^-1 to bracket the range of seed values in the USA for medium red clover. Lime and its application costs were based on local commercial quotes using $0.057 and 0.055 kg^-1 for the 5.6 and 11.2 Mg ha^-1 amounts, respectively. Partial budget net return was based on an equal amortization of lime expenses from seed income by treatment for both seed production years. Within the two herbage removal treatments, net partial budget income for lime application amounts were determined for the combined 2 yr of seed production for each of the five seed values (V) and the L x V interaction effect tested by the V x L x B interaction. All differences reported are significant at P 0.05 according to Fisher's protected LSD unless otherwise stated.

	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Seasonal Differences and Crop Response
Soil pH values in the spring of 1996 were 5.6, 6.1, and 6.4 for the control, 5.6 kg ha^-1, and 11.2 Mg ha^-1 lime treatments, respectively (range of pH for all replicates was 5.5 to 6.7). Red clover grown for forage is slightly tolerant to acidic soil conditions, with an optimal soil pH for herbage production between 6.0 and 6.5 (Miller and Reetz, 1995). Thus, treatments included soil pH values that bracketed the optimal range for red clover forage production. There are no reports of an optimal soil pH for red clover seed production. Farmers report that autumn-planted red clover in western Oregon does not compete well with weeds during establishment when soil pH is <5.5 (R. Quiring, 2002, personal communication).

Total crop season precipitation amounts (September to August) were 713 mm in 1993-1994 and 1254 mm in 1994–1995 (Fig. 1). The precipitation amounts received during the period from May to August in the two crop years were 77 and 130 mm, respectively. It is during this period from herbage removal to seed maturity when available soil water amount influences seed yield, with the greater the precipitation received around the time of full bloom, the greater the seed yield (Oliva et al., 1994a). Seed yields were 19% greater when 150 mm of water was added to the soil profile at the time of flowering in 1994 compared with 60 mm in 1995 (Oliva et al., 1994b). The >50 mm more precipitation received during the seed production period in 1995, compared with 1994 (Fig. 1), probably accounted for the absence of a seed yield reduction from delayed herbage removal in 1995 (Table 3). When general seed production conditions are less limiting (e.g., first seed year crop, good root integrity, and high soil-water amount), delayed herbage removal will generally not reduce seed yield (Steiner et al., 1995). The impact of greater precipitation received during the reproductive period on plant growth in the second year is also supported by the relatively small 12% reduction in season-end phytomass compared with the 46.6% reduction in the first year crop (Table 3). Because monthly air temperature profiles for the two crop years were similar (r = 0.98; P 0.001) and average temperatures for the 2 yr were virtually the same (Fig. 1), differences in crop response to climate between years were more likely due to precipitation amount than temperature. As demonstrated in earlier studies (Oliva et al., 1994b; Steiner et al.,1995), seed yield is related to the capacity of plants to produce dry matter following spring herbage removal (Fig. 2), particularly under conditions causing stress following spring herbage removal (e.g., delayed herbage removal and second seed year production typically with poorer root health than in the first production year). This explains why there was no relationship between season-end phytomass and seed yield for the first seed year normal herbage removal treatment, and neither removal treatment in the second year (Fig. 2).

View larger version (41K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. Monthly precipitation and average temperature from 1993 to 1995 for 2 yr of red clover seed production near Corvallis, OR.

View larger version (32K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. Effect of normal and delayed herbage removal on the relationship between season-end dry matter production from the time of spring herbage removal until seed harvest and red clover seed yield. Points represent three lime treatments and four replications.

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3. Effect of soil pH, time of spring herbage removal, and age of stand on seed yield of red clover grown near Corvallis, OR in 1994 and 1995.

Both root diameter and root rot index increased with increasing soil pH, but the percentage of roots with root borer infestation was unaffected (Fig. 4). The larger roots caused by increased soil pH were correlated with the root rot index (r = 0.56; P 0.005). An earlier study showed larger roots tended to have a greater percentage of borer infestation (Steiner and Alderman, 1997). The increase in root rot index with increasing soil pH is contrary to results reported for some vegetable and ornamental crops in which increasing pH reduced Fusarium root rot severity (Jones et al., 1989). The average 2.5 root rot index rating indicated only moderate disease pressure had occurred by the end of the second seed production year. However, since more than 95% of roots sampled were infested with root borers, stands of plants in none of the lime treatments persisted well enough through winter 1996 to warrant a third seed production year, even though second seed year yields were nearly as great as first year yields. There was no relationship between total 2-yr seed yield and root rot index (r = -0.03), even though there was a correlation between soil pH and root rot index (r = 0.69) (Fig. 4). Our results support the earlier finding that root borer infestation, and not the severity of F. solani infection, was a primary cause of root health decline in western Oregon red clover seed fields (Steiner and Alderman, 1999).

View larger version (15K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4. Effect of soil pH on red clover root health in 1995 after 2 yr of seed production near Corvallis, OR. Root borer means are presented with 5% confidence.

View larger version (31K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5. Effect of lime application amount on partial budget net income for red clover seed production near Corvallis, OR, shown as: (A) combined 2 yr of production; (B) first and second seed production years; and (C) herbage removal time. Results are based on a seed price of $1.65 kg-1. Lime and application costs were amortized across the two production years. Graph bars with different letters are significant at P 0.05 by Fisher's protected LSD test.

Our results do not imply that lime should not be applied to low soil pH fields typically found in this humid temperate marine climate region, but provide an example where a positive biological response resulting from an agronomic practice does not result in a positive economic return from seed yield. Research is needed to determine the effects of soil-applied lime before autumn establishment and spring-applied B, as well as non-seed-yield impacts such as clover seedling competitiveness during establishment with weeds in pH < 5.5 soils that are typical for red clover seed production systems in the humid temperate marine region.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
The authors thank W.E. Gavin, B. Thompson, and K. Freitag for technical assistance with this research.

	NOTES

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Joint contribution of USDA-ARS and Oregon Agric. Exp. Stn., Technical Paper no. 11887.

Received for publication April 12, 2002.

	REFERENCES

TOP NOTES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 

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This Article Abstract Figures Only Full Text (PDF) Free Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in ISI Web of Science Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (4) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Steiner, J. J. Articles by Alderman, S. C. Search for Related Content PubMed Articles by Steiner, J. J. Articles by Alderman, S. C. Agricola Articles by Steiner, J. J. Articles by Alderman, S. C. Related Collections Crop Systems Plant Disease Seed Production