Crop Science 41:1179-1184 (2001)
© 2001 Crop Science Society of America
TURFGRASS SCIENCE
Impact of Light-Weight Rolling on Putting Green Performance
Christopher E. Hartwigera,
Charles H. Peacock*,b,
Joseph M. DiPaolac and
D. Keith Casseld
a United States Golf Association, Birmingham, AL 35244
b Dep. of Crop Science, North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, NC 27695
c Novartis Crop Protection, Greensboro, NC 27409
d Dep. of Soil Science, North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, NC 27695
* Corresponding author (Charles_Peacock{at}ncsu.edu)
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ABSTRACT
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The introduction of light-weight rollers has contributed to the reconsideration of the practice of rolling golf putting greens. Studies were conducted in 1993 and 1994 to determine the effects of rolling on soil bulk density, putting green speed, turf quality, root mass, and thatch mass. Experimental ‘Penncross’ creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) putting greens built on a United States Golf Association (USGA) specification root zone and on a Cecil gravelly sandy loam (Typic Hapludult clayey, kaolinitic, thermic) (native soil) root zone were mowed daily and subjected to four rates of rolling (0, 1, 4, or 7 times per week) with a light-weight roller for a 10-wk period. Soil bulk density did not change for any rolling frequency on the USGA green. Rolling rates of four and seven times per week increased bulk density on the native soil green by 4 and 3% in the first year while no changes were detected in the second year. Turf quality was diminished for rolling rates of four and seven times per week. Ball roll increased as the rate of rolling increased. Rolling rate did not alter root mass. Thatch levels were not affected by rolling frequency on the USGA green. On the native soil green, four and seven rolling treatments per week resulted in thatch levels 12 and 11% higher than the control. Rolling once per week appears to offer increased green speed without any deleterious turf effects.
Abbreviations: BRD, ball roll distance • RPW, rollings per week • USGA, United States Golf Association
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INTRODUCTION
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ROLLING GOLF PUTTING GREENS is a maintenance practice intended to provide a smooth and uniform putting surface with less resistance to ball roll. While this practice dates back to the early years of golf course management, its popularity with superintendents has varied. Rolling was a common practice during the early 1900s, but began to fall out of favor in the 1950s as the effects of compaction became better understood and mowing technology improved (Beard, 1982; Carrow and Petrovic, 1992). In the late 1980s, self-propelled lightweight rollers were introduced into the USA. These units were designed to enhance the smoothness and uniformity of the turf canopy while attempting to minimize any adverse effects to the soil. The development of new dedicated rollers and the popularity of high sand content root zones on golf putting greens has contributed to a reconsideration of the merits of rolling (Nus, 1992; DiPaola and Hartwiger, 1994). Rolling plays a critical role in the preparation of a green's surface for tournament play.
Cultural practices, including excessively low mowing heights, low N fertilization, and reduced irrigation can increase the distance a ball rolls on a green, but often conflict with sound agronomic principles. The practice of rolling greens, when other cultural inputs are not modified, has been viewed in a similar manner. However, few scientific data exist to validate the agronomic responses of these new lightweight rollers. Consequently, the practicing golf course superintendent has limited scientific information available to provide direction on how rolling might be integrated in an effective cultural turfgrass management program.
Few reports on the effects of rollers are available in the literature. However, there is increasing interest in studying the effects of rolling on green speed. Green speed is a term used to describe the distance a ball travels on a golf putting green when released from an inclined plane called a Stimpmeter (United States Golf Association, 1979). A more descriptive term for green speed may be ball roll distance (BRD), which hereafter will be used synonymously with green speed. Researchers (Beard, 1994; Danneberger et al., 1993; Hamilton et al., 1994) have demonstrated that rolling increases BRD on a putting green from 13 to 30 cm. Reports by Danneberger (1989) and Hamilton et al. (1994) indicated rolling did not increase soil compaction of putting greens constructed with a high sand content root zone.
There are numerous opportunities for integrating a dedicated light weight roller into a cultural program for bentgrass putting greens. One possibility is the substitution of rolling for mowing on one or more days per week. By mowing fewer days per week, the turf would be subjected to less mowing stress while utilizing rolling treatments to produce a putting surface of comparable quality. Of course, this idea is predicated on the concept that the stress caused by rolling is less than the stress caused by mowing, which has not been documented. However, the effects of mowing and rolling on BRD have been studied and suggest that both practices affect BRD by roughly the same magnitude (Throssel, 1981; Beard, 1994; Danneberger et al., 1993; Hamilton et al., 1994). Throssel (1981) reported a 20- to 25-cm increase in BRD after mowing and rolling has increased BRD by 13 to 30 cm (Beard, 1994; Danneberger et al., 1993; Hamilton et al., 1994).
A study was initiated in 1992 that examined several effects of light weight rollers on bentgrass putting greens. The objective of the study was to determine how different rolling frequencies and mowing heights affected soil bulk density, turf quality, green speed, root weight, and thatch on putting greens built on high sand and native soil root zones.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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Two experimental golf putting greens established with Penncross creeping bentgrass located at the North Carolina State University Turfgrass Research Center at Raleigh, NC, were used for this study. One green (USGA green) was constructed in 1979 according to USGA specifications (Ferguson, 1965). The other green (native soil green) was established on a Cecil gravely sandy loam soil (Typic Hapludult clayey, kaolinitic, thermic) located in situ. Bensulide [S-(0,0-diisopropyl phosphorodithioate) ester of N-2-mercaptoethyl) benzenesulfonamide] and oxadiazon [2-tert-butyl-4-(2,4-dichloro-5-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-1,3,4-oxadiazolin-5-one], were applied for preemergence weed control at a rate of 6.7 and 1.7 kg ha-1 in late March of 1993 and 1994. Nitrogen fertilization was maintained at 290 kg ha-1 per year and potassium was applied at half the nitrogen rate. Fungicides were applied curatively after the appearance of any disease. In March of 1993 and 1994, the treatment area was aerified with hollow tines 9.5 mm in diameter and the cores removed. Irrigation was provided throughout the study as needed to prevent wilt.
Treatment plots (1 by 3 m) were arranged in a two factorial experiment with both factors in strips with six replications. The factors were mowing height and rolling frequency. Data were analyzed as a two factorial experiment with both factors in strips as follows: Replicates R, r-1; Treatments A, a-1; Test R x A, (r-1)(a-1); Treatments B, b-1; Test R x B, (r-1)(b-1); Interactions AB, (a-1)(b-1); Test R x AB, (r-1)(a-1)(b-1); and Total, rab-1.
Plots were mowed daily with a Toro triplex greensmower at one of the two treatment heights, 4.0 or 6.5 mm. Rolling treatments were applied using a GreenRollerJ (Cultural Turf Technologies, Arnold, PA) lightweight roller at frequencies of zero, one, four, or seven rollings per week (RPW). The weight of the GreenRollerJ and operator was approximately 281 kg. A single rolling treatment consisted of rolling across a plot in one direction and then back in the opposite direction. Treatments receiving one rolling per week were rolled every Monday whereas the four RPW was rolled each Monday, Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday. Seven RPW treatments were applied daily. The study was conducted for 70 d in 1993 (14 June–22 August) and repeated in 1994 (13 June–21 August) on the same plots.
Ball roll distance measurements were taken according to the USGA procedure using a modified USGA stimpmeter (USGA, 1979). The ball release notch on the stimpmeter was lowered from the standard 91.4-cm height to 45.7 cm to shorten BRD to within the length of each plot. BRDs were calculated by means of the formula derived by Brede (1991) to minimize the distortion slopes cause in determining accurate BRD measurements:
where S
= BRD uphill and S
= BRD downhill.
Soil bulk density measurements were made with a sampler (Soil Moisture Corp., Santa Barbara, CA) using sampling rings 5.4-m diam by 3 cm high. Three samples were taken from each plot in the upper 3 cm of the soil below the thatch layer 1 to 2 d after the 1993 and 1994 treatment periods. Samples were oven dried for 24 h at 105°C and weighed.
Turf quality ratings were taken visually and based on turfgrass uniformity, density, and color. The rating scale ranged from 1 to 9 (9 = ideal, 1 = no live turf, and 6.5 = minimum acceptable quality for a golf putting green).
Root mass was determined from one soil core (11.4-cm diam by 15.0-cm depth) taken from each plot at the conclusion of each treatment year. The thatch and turf layer were removed and the excess soil was washed from the roots. The roots were dried at 65°C for 24 h and weighed. The root samples were ashed in an oven at 550°C for 15 h. The root mass reported is the difference between the sample weight prior to ashing and the ash weight.
A core sampler 5.4-cm diam was used to take three thatch samples from each plot at the conclusion of each treatment year. The thatch samples were oven dried at 65°C for 24 h, weighed, and then ashed at 550°C. The thatch weight reported was the difference between the sample weight prior to ashing and the ash weight.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Soil Bulk Density
Neither rolling frequency nor mowing height affected soil bulk density of the USGA green either year (Table 1). The bulk densities were higher in 1993 than those in 1994 (Tables 1 and 2) on the native soil and the USGA greens. Year x rolling frequency or year x mowing height interactions were not detected on either green. Mowing height did not affect bulk density. The difference between years may have been of little practical importance in turf response since all soil bulk density values fell within the USGA's recommended range of 1.2 to 1.6 g cm-3 for root zone bulk density (Hummel, 1993). Even though the same sample plots were used for both years, previous work has found that temporal changes due to winter frost heaving significantly alter bulk density so that in the spring all plots are equivalent (Daniel, 1994).
Increased frequency of rolling on the native soil green resulted in increased soil bulk density values in 1993, but not in 1994 (Table 1). In 1993, rolling four and seven RPW resulted in bulk densities that were 3.8 and 3.0% higher than the untreated plots. A difference between years and an interaction between year and rolling frequency was detected on the native green. The different responses between years appears to be the basis for the year x rolling frequency interaction. Mowing height did not affect bulk density in either year on the native green.
The causes for the differing responses between years on the native green are not fully understood, but may be related to environmental conditions. Bulk density may be variable throughout a year and between years (Daniel, 1994). The soil during the 1994 treatment period was wetter due to higher precipitation levels which would theoretically create conditions more favorable for compaction. However, this did not occur and in fact, the 1993 bulk density levels were higher. The winter conditions in 1993-1994 may have affected the bulk density levels for the 1994 treatment year. Unusually cold temperatures in January, 1994 may have caused increased freeze thaw activity which lowered bulk density. Nevertheless, no carryover effects from 1993 were apparent in 1994 since bulk densities were lower in 1994 even though the same plots were used.
Turf Quality
The frequency of rolling affected turf quality on the USGA and native greens in 1993 and 1994 (Table 3). Rolling frequencies of four and seven times per week produced lower turf scores compared with rolling frequencies of zero or once a week when the data for each year were averaged (Table 4). When the data for both years were combined, the effect of rolling frequency on turf quality between years was equivalent for the USGA green, but a difference between years was detected on the native green (Table 3). Two factors may have contributed to this difference between years on the native green. First, the turf quality at 0 d was much lower in 1993 because of an infection of dollar spot (Sclerotinia homoeocarpa F.T. Bennett) which decreased the 1993 average. Also, environmental conditions varied between years with cooler, wetter conditions present in 1994.
Turf quality on the plots rolled four times per week compared with the control was 15% lower in 1993 and 14% lower in 1994. The turf quality on plots rolled seven times per week compared with the control was 24% lower in 1993 and 26% lower in 1994.
After 70 d on the USGA green, turf quality on the one RPW plots did not differ from the turf quality on the control plots. The turf quality on the four RPW plots compared with the control was 6% lower in 1993 and 11% lower in 1994. Turf quality on the seven RPW compared with the control was 13% lower in 1993 and 16% lower in 1994.
A significant mowing height x rolling frequency interaction was detected for both the USGA and native greens (Fig. 1). The turf quality on both greens followed the same general trend. As rolling frequency increased, the difference in turf quality between mowing heights was smaller indicating that regardless of the level of turf quality, high rolling frequencies diminish turf quality. The rate of decline in turf quality may depend on the turf quality levels prior to the initiation of rolling.
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Fig. 1. Effects of rolling frequency and mowing height on turf quality on native and USGA greens during 1993 and 1994.
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The turf quality data suggest several important conclusions. The practice of rolling should not be viewed as entirely detrimental to turf quality. There are frequencies of rolling at which turf quality will not be affected adversely and rolling frequencies at which turf quality will be reduced. This study has demonstrated that four and seven RPW was detrimental to turf quality while one RPW had no effect on turf quality.
Ball Roll Distance
All frequencies of rolling on the native and USGA greens in both years produced increased ball roll distances (Table 5; Fig. 2). As rolling frequency increased, BRD increased. While not all rolling frequencies were significant on each individual date, the general trend of increasing ball roll distance with increased rolling frequency is apparent in Fig. 3, 4, and 5.
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Fig. 2. The percentage change in ball roll distances for various rolling frequencies compared with the control plots (0 rolls per week) for the native green in 1993.
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Fig. 3. The percentage change in ball roll distances for various rolling frequencies the control plots (0 rolls per week) for the native green in 1994.
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Fig. 4. The percentage change in ball roll distances for various rolling frequencies compared with the control plots (0 rolls per week) for the USGA green in 1993.
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Fig. 5. The percentage change in ball roll distances for various rolling frequencies compared with the control plots (0 rolls per week) for the USGA green in 1994.
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The data also revealed several residual effects of rolling. Specifically, the BRD on the one RPW plots on the native and USGA greens showed significant increases in BRD of 2.9 and 2.7% when compared with the control plots over both years (Table 5 and Fig. 2). The residual effect is apparent when considering the time when the one RPW plots were rolled and the time the BRD was determined. BRD measurements on the one RPW plots were never taken within 48 h of a rolling treatment. Therefore, a ball roll effect remained 48 h after a rolling treatment was performed. This conflicts with the findings of Hamilton et al. (1994) and Langlois (1985) who reported the effect of rolling lasted less than 48 h.
Residual effects can also be seen on the seven RPW plots. BRD measurements were always taken on a day when the four or seven RPW plots had been rolled. When the results for the 1993 and 1994 years were combined for each green, the seven RPW plots had BRDs 3% greater than the BRDs on the four RPW plots on the native green and 9% greater on the USGA green (Table 5). Factors other than a smoother turf canopy may have contributed to this difference. When reviewing the turf quality ratings for the USGA and the native greens, there was a difference in turf quality between the four and seven RPW plots. The lower turf quality ratings on the seven RPW plots may have equated to a thinner turf with less resistance to ball roll and larger BRD.
Although BRD increased for all rolling frequencies on both greens, turf quality must be considered when assessing practical implications. Clearly, four or seven rolling treatments produced the largest BRDs which may be most appealing to the golf course superintendent. However, there is a trade off associated with these higher BRDs. After 70 d of treatment, the turf quality associated with the four and seven RPW treatments was below the turf quality of the control (Table 5). In many instances, these turf quality levels were below or near the minimally acceptable level of 6.5. As a result, rolling frequencies of four or seven RPW produced increased BRDs at the expense of turf quality. Rolling treatments once per week were not associated with a decrease in turf quality but did increase BRD for at least 48 h.
The BRD results differed significantly between years for both the USGA native soil greens. The BRDs of the native and the USGA greens were 9 cm greater in 1993 than 1994 across all mowing heights and rolling frequencies. Additionally, significant interactions for year x rolling frequency and year x mowing height were detected for each green and an interaction between rolling frequency and mowing height was detected on the native green. These interactions were not of a large magnitude and have little practical implication. However, the differences between treatment years does indicate the role that environmental conditions play. The higher temperatures and lower precipitation in 1993 probably contributed to the longer BRDs seen in 1993.
Root Mass and Thatch
The rolling frequency did not have a significant effect on root mass on the USGA or native soil greens in either year of the study (data not presented).
Rolling frequency and mowing height had no effect on the amount of thatch in the USGA green during 1994, but an effect was detected on the native green in 1994 (data not presented). Four RPW resulted in thatch levels 12% higher than the control while seven RPW produced thatch levels 11% higher than the control. Thatch levels were 12% higher on plots mowed at 6.5 mm compared with plots mowed at 4.0 mm. Additional treatment years are needed to confirm these results and to provide a basis for these differences.
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CONCLUSIONS
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The results indicate the practice of rolling putting greens once per week did not adversely effect bulk density, turf quality, thatch, or root weight. One rolling per week did increase ball roll distance up to 48 h after a rolling treatment was applied. Once rolling frequency was increased to four or seven times per week, any benefits in increased BRD were overshadowed by decreases in turf quality that were often unacceptable. Turf injury from wear appears to be the limiting factor associated with rolling. Future work should focus on assessing how two and three RPW affect turf quality. Also, more quantitative methods should be used to assess the extent of injury to the turf prior to the onset of visual signs of injury.
Received for publication March 13, 2000.
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REFERENCES
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- Beard, J.B. 1982. Turf management for golf courses. Macmillan Publishing, New York.
- Beard, J.B. 1994. Turf rolling. Grounds Maintenance. January, p. 44, 46, 48, 52.
- Brede, A.D. 1991. Correction for slope in green speed measurement of golf course putting greens. Agron. J. 83:425–426.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
- Carrow, R.N., and A.M. Petrovic. 1992. Effects of traffic on turfgrass. p. 286–325. In D.V. Waddington et al. (ed.) Turfgrass. Agron. Monogr. 32. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.
- Danneberger, K. 1989. No speed limit. Landscape Manage. 29(4): 66–70.
- Danneberger, K., E. McCoy, and T. Parobek. 1993. Rolling greens— help or hindrance? Ohio State University Turf News. 17(5):13–14.
- Daniel, P.F. 1994. Fertilizer induced changes in selected soil characteristics and turf responses in a bermudagrass grown on a native soil and a bentgrass grown on an amended soil. M.S. thesis. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
- DiPaola, J.M., and C.E. Hartwiger. 1994. Green speed, rolling and soil compaction. Golf Course Manage. 62(9):49–51,78.
- Ferguson, M.H. 1965. After five years: The Green Section specification for a putting green. USGA Green Section Record. 3(4):1–7.
- Hamilton, G.W., D.W. Livingston, and A.E. Gover. 1994. The effects of light-weight rolling on putting greens. p. 425–430. In A.J. Cochran and M.R. Farrally (ed.) Science and Golf II. Proceedings of the 1994 WorldScientific Congress of Golf, St. Andrews, Scotland. 4–8 July. 1994. E&FN Spon, London.
- Hummel, N.W. 1993. Rationale for the revisions of the USGA green construction specifications. USGA Green Section Record. March–April, 21:7–21.
- Langlois, S.R. 1985. Practices affecting putting green speed. M.S. Thesis. The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA.
- Nus, J. 1992. Rolling putting greens. Golf Course Manage. 60(11):16, 18, 20, 22.
- Throssel, C.S. 1981. Management factors affecting putting green speed. (M.S. Thesis) The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA.
- United States Golf Association. 1979. Stimpmeter instruction booklet. Golf House, Far Hills, NJ.
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
averages for the native and USGA greens in 1993, 1994, and both years combined.